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Unit 1 – Intro to Philosophical Ethics

Challenge 1 – What Is Philosophy?

Philosophy and the Limits of the Senses

Conceptual definitions

Philosophy Beyond the Senses

science – what
philosophy – why

Philosophical Values

double standards

Philosophy, Dogmatism, and Rhetoric

dogma – hold to beliefs without question
rhetoric – modifying message to suit the audience

Philosophical and Non-Philosophical Inquiry

Review of Philosophy

1. Using reasoning and logical arguments
2. Maintaining consistency between our actions and beliefs
3. Consistently applying our standards of judgment or evaluation
4. Guarding against the biasing influence of our passions

Philosophy and Science

Scientists are good at finding solutions to problems, but philsophers help to make sure the right problems are identified.

Philosophy within Science

Scientists are aware of their biases, and try and think philosophically to avoid them

Belief and Evidence

Believe in things, but use evidence.

Philosophical and Non-Philosophical Questions

Philosophical – What does our morality mean to us? How does it effect our self-understanding?
Sociological – How do different societies deal with death? (e.g. burial, rituals, etc.)
Scientific – What changes does organic life undergo when it dies?
Religious – Is there life after death?

Benefits of Philosophy and Ethics

philosophy is the pursuit of truth

1. Using reasoning and logical arguments
2. Maintaining consistency between our actions and beliefs
3. Consistently applying our standards of judgment or evaluation
4. Guarding against the biasing influence of our passions

Benefits of Philosophy to the Individual

Asking why, thinking critically

Benefits of Philosophy to Society

Applying critical, non-dogmatic thought to societal issues. Eg, copernicas and his heliocentric odel

Philosophy and Ethics

Establishing a moral framework helps you act ethically

Benefits of Ethics

These headers are misleading. This doesn’t really discuss the benefits of ethics.

Societyal progress has happened as people made decisions about what is ethical; eg, slavery, civil rights

The Philosophical Approach to Inquiry

Specifying a Philosophical Question

Think about a broad issue, then narrow it down a question
“Charity” -> “Should we give to those in need?”

Identifying and Evaluating Philosophical Positions

Find out what others have said, and weight their arguments

Advancing a Thesis

Use all the arguments, and put together a thesis

Challenge 2 – Philosophically Analyzing Arguments

Introduction to Arguments

Arguments

Premise A claim of something true of the world
Conclusion What follows from the premise

Factual Claims

The truth of the premise. “This thing is old”

Inferential Claims

Do the claims follow the premise?
“You come from a different country; therefore, you must be up to no good.”
“My home is burning down, so I need to get out.”

Distinguishing Factual and Inferential Claims

Premises and Conclusions

Deductive and Inductive Inference

Deductive Argument
An argument whose inferential claim is a claim of logical certainty

Inductive Argument
An argument whose inferential claim is a claim less than logical certainty.

Logical Certainty
Inconceivable that the conclusion is not entailed by the premises

Evaluating the Structure of an Argument

Invalid
A deductive argument in which the premise(s) do not logically guarantee their conclusion

Strong
An inductive argument in which the premises render the conclusion probable

Valid
A deductive argument whose premise(s) logically guarantee their conclusion

Weak
An inductive argument in which the premises do not render the conclusion probable

Evaluating an Argument

Cogent
An inductively strong argument with all true premises

Sound
A deductively valid argument with all true premises

Uncogent
An inductive argument that is not cogent

Unsound
A deductive argument that is not sound

Challenge 3: Ethics as a Branch of Philosophy

Introduction to philosophical ethics

Ethics and Philosophy

Ethics
The branch of philosophy that analyzes and defends concepts of value and thereby seeks to determine right and wrong

Ethics and Everyday Life

Use a systemic view of ethical choices

Ethical and Non-Ethical Topics

Ethics, law, social convention, religion

Often these things agree, but often they don’t

Actions and Events

Action
An event whose immediate cause is the decision of an agent

Branches of Ethics

Applied Ethics
The branch of ethics that uses normative ethical theories to evaluate and prescribe actions in specific situations and contexts

Descriptive Ethics
The branch of ethics that analyzes people’s beliefs about value

Metaethics
The branch of ethics that analyzes the nature of value-based discourse

Normative Ethics
The branch of ethics that analyzes which actions are right and wrong

The Evaluation of Actions

Impermissible
An action that it is wrong to perform

Neutral
An action that is neither right nor wrong to perform

Obligatory
An action that it is wrong not to perform

Permissible
An action that is not wrong to perform

Supererogatory
An action that morally exceeds that which is obligatory

Categorizing Ethical Theories

Relativism
An approach to ethics that maintains that there are no universal ethical truths

Conventionalism
A relativist approach to ethics that maintains that ethical truths are relative to convention, society, or culture

Objectivism
An approach to ethics that maintains that there are at least some universal ethical truths

Subjectivism
A relativist approach to ethics that maintains that ethical truths are relative to the individual

Challenge 1: Divine Command Theory

Divine Command Theory

Divine Command Theory
A theory of ethics that maintains that right and wrong are determined solely by God’s free command

Objectivist

The Freedom of God’s Commands

aka theological voluntarism

Commitments of Divine Command Theory

impermissible god says no

Applying Divine Command Theory

hm

Support for Divine Command Theory

1. Placing standards of judgments on a firm basis
2. Telling us where these standards come from
3. Making sense of our place in the world

Refutations of Divine Command Theory

The Euthyphro Dilemma

Plato wrote that Socrates asked to Euthyphro
does God choose to command something because it is good, or is it good just because God wants to command it

1. Say that something is good just because God freely decides what is good. This is called the voluntarist option because it’s based on God’s own volition or will.
   1. This seems arbitrary. How do you build an ethical framework
2. Say that God doesn’t decide what is good, but rather commands something because he sees that it is good. This is called the intellectualist option because God thinks about what is good (i.e. uses intellect), rather than simply willing it.
   1. if something is good before God commands it, then it becomes independent of God.

Advantages and Shortcomings of Divine Command Theory

basing ethics on God’s commands may sometimes match up with what you intuitively think about right and wrong, but sometimes does not.

Challenge 2: Conventionalism

Conventionalism
A relativist theory of ethics that maintains that what is good is determined relative to a society, convention, or culture.

cultural differences argument

If there are universal ethical truths, cultures would have the same values; cultures have different values, therefore there are no universal ethical truths

Premis is flawed; disagreement does not prove relativism

Challenge 3: Egoism

Egoism
A relativist, subjectivist theory of ethics that maintains that right and wrong is relative to self-interest.

psychological egoism – people are self interested

ethical egoism – a normative account that says how people ought to be

Ethical egoism is the only ethical theory that says what is good is the same as what meets the self-interest of individuals.

Utilitarianism and Kantian Deontology

Challenge 1 – Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism
A system of ethics that maintains that good is proportionate to total probable utility

Utility
The increase or decrease in the total happiness consequent to an action

Commitments of Utilitarianism

obligatory – lying to save a life
neutral – lying to let someone tell a story you’ve already heard

Fully maximizing utility is supererogatory

Act and Rule Utilitarianism

action – action is good if it raises utility
rule – action is good if it follows rules that normally bring about good consequences

Hedonic and Idealist Utilitarianism

hedonist – all goods are the same, so they can be compared
idealist – different types of good
higher and lower pleasures – idealist sames some goods are of higher value

Challenge 2 – Kantian Deontology

Deontology
A family of ethical theories that maintains that the value of the action is determined by something intrinsic to the act itself

Kantian Deontology
A form of Deontology that places absolute moral value in the agent’s intent

Categorical Imperative
A concept in Kantian Deontology that fulfills the role of a moral law that is binding on all people in all circumstances.

Formulation
A test of the permissibility of an action by determining whether it is consistent with upholding the categorical imperative

Maxim
The situation-specific principle of an action that an agent upholds by acting in that way – I will do something under such-and-such circumstances for some purpose

By humanity Kant means those features that make us ethical agents; for instance, that we can use our rational capacities to determine goals and that we have the freedom necessary to pursue these goals

universalizability – if everyone does something, and it has bad consequences, it is bad. Eg, lying, stealing; always wrong regardless of circumstances because if everyone did it, it would be terrible

Problems

• Feelings have no place in ethical discussions.
• Ignorance makes it easier to get away with bad actions.
• Unintended effects have no impact on a person’s moral character.

Virture-based Ethics, Engaging Ethics, Case Studies

Challenge 1 – Virture-based Ethics

This theory is objectivist

Vice
A character trait of moral disvalue.

Virtue
A character trait of moral value.

Virtue-Based Ethics
A theory of ethics that maintains that an action is to be evaluated based on how that action informs the aspects of the agent’s character.

Character is secondary – only seen in light of their actions

“What kind of person should I be”

Support

Trent is looking for an ethical system that is about cultivating the best version of himself.

Problems

• Focusing on character can leave other people out of the picture
• Attaining virtures is not a good guiding action; “Become more courageous” is nothing – Feelings vs skills

Challenge 2: Engaging Ethics Philosophically

Consequentialism
The position that consequences are the basis for ethical valuation

Deontology
The position that something intrinsic to the action itself is the basis for ethical valuation

Character Ethics
The position that the character trait being manifested in the action is the basis for ethical valuation

Challenge 3 – Case studies

Capital punishment
Abortion
Wealth distribution
Animal rights